Presidents Who Were Masons

There are at least 14 presidents who were Masons, or Freemasons, according to the secretive fraternal organization and presidential historians. The list of presidents who were Masons includes the likes of George Washington and Theodore Roosevelt to Harry S. Truman and Gerald Ford. Truman was one of two presidents—the other was Andrew Jackson—to achieve the rank of grandmaster, the highest ranking position in a Masonic lodge jurisdiction. Washington, meantime, earned the highest possible position, that of master, and has a Masonic memorial named after him in Alexandria, Virginia, whose mission is to highlight the contributions of Freemasons to the nation. American presidents were among many of the nations most powerful men who were members of the Freemasons. Joining the organization was seen as a rite of passage, even a civic duty, in the 1700s. It also got some presidents into trouble. Here is a complete list of presidents who were Masons, drawn from the organizations own records as well as the historians who chronicled its importance in American life. George Washington Washington, the nations first president, became a Mason in Fredericksburg, Virginia, in 1752. He has been quoted as saying, The object of Freemasonry is to promote the happiness of the human race. James Monroe Monroe, the nations fifth president, was initiated as a Freemason in 1775 before he was even 18 years old. He eventually became a member of the Masons lodge in Williamsburg, Virginia. Andrew Jackson Jackson, the nations seventh president, was considered a devout Mason who defended the lodge from critics. Andrew Jackson was loved by the Craft. He was Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Tennessee and presided with masterly ability. He died as a Mason should die. He met the great Masonic foe and fell calmly beneath his silent blows, it was said of Jackson at the installation of a monument on his behalf in Memphis, Tennessee. James K. Polk Polk, the 11th president, began as a Mason in 1820 and achieved the rank of junior warden in his jurisdiction in Columbia, Tennessee, and earned the royal arch degree. In 1847, he helped in a Masonic ritual of laying a cornerstone at the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D.C., according to William L. Boyden. Boyden was a historian who wrote Masonic Presidents, Vice Presidents, and signers of the Declaration of Independence. James Buchanan Buchanan, our 15th president and only commander-in-chief to be a bachelor in the White House, joined the Masons in 1817 and achieved the rank of district deputy grand master in his home state of Pennsylvania. Andrew Johnson Johnson, the 17th president of the United States, was a loyal Mason. According to Boyden, At the cornerstone laying of the Baltimore Temple some one suggested that a chair be brought to the reviewing platform for him. Brother Johnson refused it, saying: We all meet on the level. James A. Garfield Garfield, the nations 20th president, was made a Mason in 1861in Columbus, Ohio. William McKinley McKinley, the nations 25th president, was made a Mason in 1865 in Winchester, Virginia. Todd E. Creason, founder of the Midnight Freemasons blog, wrote this about the understated McKinley: He was trusted. He listened much more than he spoke. He was willing to admit when he was wrong. But McKinley’s greatest character trait was his honesty and integrity. He twice turned down the nomination for President because he felt each time that the Republican Party had violated its own rules in nominating him. He squashed the nomination both times-something a politician today would probably view as an unthinkable act. William McKinley is a very good example of what a true and upright Mason should be. Theodore Roosevelt Roosevelt, the 26th president, was made a Freemason in New York in 1901. He was known for his virtue and refusal to use his status as a Mason for political gain. Wrote Roosevelt: If you are a mason you will of course understand that it is expressly forbidden in masonry to attempt to use the order in any way for anyone’s political advantage, and it must not be done. I should emphatically object to any effort so to use it. William Howard Taft Taft, the 27th president, was made a Mason in 1909, just before becoming president. He was made a Mason at sight by the grand master of Ohio, meaning he did not have to earn his acceptance into the lodge like most others do. Warren G. Harding Harding, the 29th president, first sought acceptance into the Masonic brotherhood in 1901 but was initially blackballed. He was eventually accepted and held no grudges, wrote John R. Tester of Vermont. While president, Harding took every opportunity to speak for Masonry and attend Lodge meetings when he could, he wrote. Franklin D. Roosevelt Roosevelt, the 32nd president, was a 32nd Degree Mason. Harry S. Truman Truman, the 33rd president, was grand master and 33rd degree Mason. Gerald R. Ford Ford, the 38th president, is the most recent to have been a Mason. He began with the fraternity in 1949. No president since Ford has been a Freemason.

Role of Print Media in Conflict Resolution a Comparative...

Role Of Print Media In Conflict Resolution: A Comparative Study Of Daily Dawn Jang Newspapers Regarding The Issue Of Lal Masjid AEMEN KHALID Session: 2006 to 2008 Supervisor: Dr. Anjum Zia DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION LAHORE COLLEGE FOR WOMEN UNIVERSITY LAHORE 2008 ABSTRACT This research paper investigates â€Å" the role of Daily Dawn and Daily Jang with reference to conflict resolution in case of Lal Masjid†.The study applied a social sciences methodology using content analysis technique to analyze the data. The study generates a substantial body of initial information about the role of print media in inter-state conflicts. A total of 302 news stories from the front and back page and 32 editorials and editorial notes of two†¦show more content†¦Young agrees that both print and electronic media contributes to conflict escalation, either directly or indirectly. He observes that media focus in many cases is selective and events such as battles or bombings receive more coverage (Young, 1991) Kamala Sarup (2003) noted that we cannot play effective role in preventing conflicts until the very nature and the root causes are understood. Even it is known that media is a vital factor for peace, democracy and a dignified human development. Media r eporting on the possibilities for conflict resolution could become a useful support for non-violent problem solving. Many research studies have been conducted to observe the effect and coverage of national and international print media on readers regarding different issues. (Abid Masood Tehami, Farooq Rana Shabana Mubasher). Findings of previous researches had made the researcher to conclude that print media plays an important role in a nation’s life. The print media have taken a long time to mature as a platform for dispassionate analysis and free expression of news and views about public life but no study has been carried out in Lahore, Pakistan regarding conflict resolution and prevention for an inter-state issue, particularly Lal Masjid prior to this study. The study addressed the questions â€Å"how much coverage both newspapers have given to the news items positively supporting the issue and

Enemy free essay sample

Enemy Prompt: 2001. One definition of madness is â€Å"mental delusion or the eccentric behavior arising from it.† But Emily Dickinson wrote Much madness is divinest Sense- To a discerning Eye- Novelists and playwrights have often seen madness with a â€Å"discerning Eye.† Select a novel or play in which a character’s apparent madness or irrational behavior plays an important role. Then write a well-organized essay in which you explain what this delusion or eccentric behavior consists of and how it might be judged reasonable. Explain the significance of the â€Å"madness† to the work as a whole. Do not merely summarize the plot. In a cast of die-hard soldiers fighting in World War II, there is one who is notable for his odd behavior and expression of beliefs. The idealized American soldier is expected to die for his country, but Yossarian will do no such thing and his actions appear crazy to those around him. We will write a custom essay sample on Enemy or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The insanities and ironies that war present make it seem more like a silly game, than an effective tactic. Generals, Colonels, Majors, even enlisted soldiers, are being brainwashed into believing that they are fighting for a good cause. Yossarian knows that they have only become their own worst enemies though. Catch-22, by Joseph Heller, shines a light on the irony of war and forces the reader to ask: how much is too much? The realization of death is very clear to Yossarian and unlike the other majors and generals; he does not want to die for his country. Many readers may argue that these feelings are wrong and immoral for a soldier to feel, but Yossarian’s arguments make perfect sense. He says to Clevinger, â€Å"Open your eyes, Clevinger. It doesn’t make a damned difference who wins the war to someone who’s dead.† (123) Of course Clevinger retorts saying that Yossarian’s words are only giving comfort to the enemy, but I wonder who the enemy is. According to Yossarian, â€Å"The enemy is anybody who’s going to get you killed, no matter which side he’s on, and that includes Colonel Cathcart.† (124) By increasing the missions, he is slowly killing each one of his soldiers. Like Colonel Cathcart, other men are quick to turn their backs on each other. Dobbs pleads Yossarian to approve his plan to murder Colonel Cathcart and Milo will sell anything t o collect money for himself. The old legend says to keep your friends close and your enemies closer, but Yossarian is the only soldier who sees that this is the wrong suggestion in the time of war. While Yossarian may be the only sane one fighting, he has no way of leaving the war. He claims to be crazy several times and when Doc Daneeka says, â€Å"There’s a rule saying I have to ground anyone who’s crazy.† (45), Yossarian nearly rejoices. But there’s a catch. Catch-22, â€Å"specified that a concern for one’s own safety in the face of dangers that were real and immediate was the process of a rational mind.† (46) These overlapping rules add to the idea the war is a game. The ambiguity of war really conveys the point that all the efforts a man may put into escaping the war will never pay off. Even if a soldier was mentally ill and was a threat to those people around him, it would not be anything out of the ordinary. Once you add Catch-22, there is no point to sending him home. Yossarian commits many acts in the novel that others see as â€Å"madness†. As the reader though you understand why he does these things. Colonel Cathcart makes a list of all the happenings associated with Yossarian, including, â€Å"Ferrara, Bologna (bomb line moved on map during), Skeet range, Naked man in formation (during Avignon), Food poisoning (during Bologna), Moaning (epidemic of during Avignon briefing)† (212). A glance at this list could easily make the reader think Yossarian is crazy, but each occurrence has an explanation. For instance, the â€Å"Naked man in formation (during Avignon)† was Yossarian and the reason he was naked was because one of his flight partners bled all over his uniform while he was dying. It makes perfect sense that Yossarian would not want to wear the blood of a dead man. The blood of a man he knew and worked with. The blood of a man that could have easily been him. There are many instances where Yossarian is mild in comparis on to the acts of other men. It is insane that Dobbs would actually consider murdering Colonel Cathcart. It is insane that Colonel Cathcart continues to increase the flight mission number. And it is also insane that Milo would try to feed his soldiers cotton in order to cover up his own mistakes. All the actions that the other men commit get overshadowed by the spotlight that is shined on Yossarian. Yossarian is the soldier that stands and represents the whole. He sees the reality and continues to be sane when everyone else is being brain-washed by the war. These men do not even know what they are fighting for. They are each others enemies and only wish the worst for each other. This is why Yossarian needs to escape the war. If he doesn’t than he will be sucked into something so warped and twisted. And if he doesn’t die during a mission, he will surely be murder by the men around him who actually are crazy.

Workplace Conflict free essay sample

Iconflict is a fact of life. Human beings are multifaceted characters and not everyone is going to get along all the time. In many I I instances, conflict in the workplace causes havoc. At the very least, it can lead to uncomfortable tension among staff. At worst, the I I results can be deadly. You need to deal with conflict in a way that makes sense for your situation; in general, however, the collaborative I I effort is the way to go because it involves people working together for the common good. Workplace conflict is a conflict that can be causedl I by many factors including he long hours many people spend at their workplace, the hierarchical structure of the organization, and the I I difficulties like financial problems that may be involved in switching to a different workplace. Workplaces share a lot in common with I Ischools, in which workers tend to be a lot less independent like kids are in high school and below. We will write a custom essay sample on Workplace Conflict or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Lets start by identifying where I Iconflicts happen. Think about the kinds of conflicts that happen around your workplace. Disagreements over turf (who should do what), I Idisagreements over policy (how things should be one), conflicts of personality and style. There are a lot of ways that employees try to usel Ito deal with conflict in the workplace like avoid the conflict, deny the conflict; wait until it goes away, change the subject, react I I emotionally; become aggressive, abusive, hysterical, or frightening, find someone to blame, make excuses, delegate the situation to someone I lelse. All of these are not productive; they are actually destructive, so learning how to manage conflict in the workplace is vitally I I important. I I Communication is both the cause of and the remedy for conflict. Understanding how to effectively communicate, and how to satisfactorily I I resolve disputes, can lead to a happier, more productive life. Communication and conflict resolution skills must be learned. Most often, I I poor communication and conflict resolution styles must be corrected and replaced with approaches that are more conducive to creating peace I lin the workplace and at home. The workplace setting is fertile breeding ground for conflicts because of the dynamics and interdependency of I lthe mployee-to-employee, customer-to-employee, and employee-to-outside vendor relationships. Recognizing and addressing the factors that I Igive rise to the potential for conflict can have a positive impact on workplace and the productivity in the workplace. Most people fear I Iconflict and see it as something to avoid. In fact, conflict is a normal and natural part of our lives, both professionally and personally. I Iconflict in the right setting, handled in the right way, can be beneficial. It is through conflict that an awareness of the need for some I Inecessary changes an be made both at work and at home. I I The workplace is a system of relationships. Relationships have many different aspects; here are several examples: trust, teamwork, quality, I I morale, self-esteem, loyalty, and respect for boss. When conflicts are handled well, theres a positive effect on work relationships. When I lthey are not, these factors can deteriorate. Productivity and the free expression of ideas are also impacted. The issue of personality I I clashes is probably the most controversial The two types of

A socio cultural environment Essay Example

A socio cultural environment Essay Example A socio cultural environment Paper A socio cultural environment Paper A socio cultural environment is a sum of practices, customs, attitudes, beliefs and behaviors that occur within population. It is influenced by cultural norms, demographic information and religious information. International organizations often do an inspection of a socio cultural environment before entering target market, because it helps the company to modify products and services appropriately. There are a lot of details that are important to understand, in order to do business in Venezuela and Japan (Verne, l. 1. , Beamer, L. , 201 1). In Venezuela, the business etiquette says that people should be greeting the most important person or the oldest person first. Interesting is that most Hispanic people have two last names one from their father and one from their mother. We should use the fathers surname when addressing someone. Venezuela has more flexible attitude towards time. People could be late, as well as business meetings or social events can begin late (Hefted, G, 2013). Business companies in Venezuela are hierarchical. Decisions, ideas and recommendations are generated from the top. Status is very important here, so people should show respect to their supervisors and colleagues as well. In this society, business relationships are based on the trust and the knowledge of each other. This is why personal contacts and networks are extremely important in making business deals. Working on friendships will improve ones success in the business environment. Venezuelan usually do not separate work from private life. Sometimes they may not trust someone first, so it is very important to take the time to develop interpersonal relationships with your future business partners. Business in Venezuela is conducted mainly in Spanish. A lot of people from Venezuela do have the knowledge of English, but it is better to bring an interpreter to business meetings if someone does not have the best knowledge of Spanish. It may be surprising to someone, that Venezuelan do not hesitate to interrupt, argue and criticize when it is needed during a discussion. Exchange of arguments and ideas is considered positive and constructive. In this society, people prefer dealing with immediate issues and do not deal with the future too much. People should not be surprised if their Venezuelan colleague is in their personal space. Many people from Latin America use a close physical proximity as a way of communicating to each other (Businesslike. CZ, 2010). Japan, on the other hand, has completely different traditions and customs. When you meet your business partner a handshake is appropriate. The Japanese handshake is not strong and with little or no eye contact, which is completely different from Venezuelan way of greeting. Some Japanese can do so called bow. It is a gesture of respect and is highly appreciated by Japanese people. The deeper the bow is, the greater respect a person shows (Verne, l. L. , Beamer, L. , 2011). Very important component of conversation in Japan is nodding. When a person listens to some speech, he/she should nod, because it is a way to show that a person is listening and understanding the speaker. For people from Venezuela, it would be probably very interesting that Japanese value silence. It is an expected form of non-verbal communication. Long eye contact is considered rude in Japan as well as standing in a personal space of some person. Touching is also absolutely inappropriate. Japanese do not like exhibiting in public, which means it is not good for example to hug someone in public. During the business meeting it is suitable to sit erect and with both feet on the floor. People should never sit in any other position (Hefted, G. , 2013). When it comes to hierarchy, both personal and business relationships are hierarchical, which means that older people have higher status than young people, man have higher status than women and in business environment senior executives have of course higher status than junior executives. It is always very important to send a manager of the same position to meet with Japanese colleague, because titles are extremely important in Japan. Work is always done in groups. Everyone must consult everything before he/she is making some decision. We are talking about decision-making by consensus and it is a very long and slow process in Japan. Business meetings are formal in Japan, so there is usually no space for humor. But Japanese as well as Venezuelan, put emphasis on establishing friendships and good relationships, so it is good to spent 10 minutes with polite conversation before the business meeting starts. Harmony is extremely important in this society. That is why saving face is necessary. Japanese people want to avoid unpleasantness, misunderstanding conflicts and confrontation. It is not good to say no during the business meeting. Instead of no, it is better to say This could be difficult and try to find another solution. People should count on the fact that it takes several meetings to conclude a contract (Verne, l. 1. , Beamer, L. , 201 1). Everyone should be prepared to give and receive a gift during the first business meeting. Gifts are usually given in the end of first meeting. Not avian a proper gift for your business partner could destroy the cooperation. The ritual of gift giving is actually more relevant than the gift itself. Wrapping of the present is also very important. Japanese can sometimes refuse the gift once or twice, but then they will accept it (Hefted, G. , 2013). An understanding of these differences, which have a big impact on countrys development, is the key to effective cross-cultural communication. What can work in one country, might not necessarily work in the other one.

40 Different Ways to Define What Archaeologists Do

40 Different Ways to Define What Archaeologists Do Archaeology has been defined by many people in many different ways since the formal study began 150 years ago. Of course, some of the differences in those definitions reflect the dynamic nature of the field. If you look at the  history of archaeology, you will notice that the study has become more scientific over time, and more focused on human behavior. But mostly, these definitions are simply subjective, reflecting how individuals look at and feel about archaeology. Archaeologists speak from their varied experiences in the field and in the lab. Non-archaeologists speak from their vision of the archaeology, as filtered by what archaeologists say, and by how popular media presents the study. In my opinion, all of these definitions are valid expressions of what archaeology is. Defining Archaeology Archaeologists work at the excavation site of No. 1 pit of the Qin Shihuang Terracotta Warriors and Horses Museum in Lintong District of Xian, Shaanxi Province, China. (August 2009).   China Photos / Getty Images [Archaeology is] the discipline with the theory and practice for the recovery of unobservable hominid behavior patterns from indirect traces in bad samples. David Clarke. 1973. Archaeology: The Loss of Innocence. Antiquity 47:17. Archaeology is the scientific study of peoples of the past... their culture and their relationship with their environment. The purpose of archaeology is to understand how humans in the past interacted with their environment, and to preserve this history for present and future learning. Larry J. Zimmerman Archaeology is a term which can be interpreted in different ways, given the broad range of research methods, periods and activities that can constitute archaeology and its research. Suzie Thomas. Community archaeology. Key Concepts in Public Archaeology. Ed. Moshenska, Gabriel. London: UCL Press, 2017. 15. Historical archaeology is more than just a treasure hunt. It is a challenging search for clues to the people, events, and places of the past. Society for Historical Archaeology Archaeology is about adventure and discovery, it involves explorations in exotic places (near or far) and it is carried out by digging detectives. Arguably, in popular culture, the research process- archaeology in action- has actually been more important than the actual research results themselves.  Cornelius Holtorf. Archaeology Is a Brand! The Meaning of Archaeology in Contemporary Popular Culture. London: Routledge, 2016. 45 Archaeology is our way of reading that message and understanding how these peoples lived. Archaeologists take the clues left behind by the people of the past, and, like detectives, work to reconstruct how long ago they lived, what they ate, what their tools and homes were like, and what became of them. State Historical Society of South Dakota Archaeology is the scientific study of past cultures and the way people lived based on the things they left behind. Alabama Archaeology Archaeology is not a science because it does not apply any recognised model has no validity: each science studies a different subject and therefore uses, or could use, a different model. Merilee Salmon, quote suggested by Andrea Vianello. A Mind-Numbing Job Archaeologists have the most mind-numbing job on the planet. Bill Watterson. Calvin and Hobbes, 17 June 2009. After all, archeology is fun. Hell, I dont break the soil periodically to reaffirm my status. I do it because archeology is still the most fun you can have with your pants on. Kent V. Flannery. 1982. The golden Marshalltown: A parable for the archeology of the 1980s. American Anthropologist 84:265-278. [Archaeology] seeks to discover how we became human beings endowed with minds and souls before we had learned to write. Grahame Clarke. 1993. A Path to Prehistory. Cited in Brian Fagans Grahame Clark: An Intellectual Biography of an Archaeologist. 2001. Westview Press. Archaeology puts all human societies on an equal footing. Brian Fagan. 1996. Introduction to the Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press, New York. Archeology is the only branch of anthropology where we kill our informants in the process of studying them. Kent Flannery. 1982. The golden Marshalltown: A parable for the archeology of the 1980s. American Anthropologist 84:265-278. The fundamental problem of using statistics in archaeology is quantification, i.e., the reduction of collections of objects to datasets. Clive Orton. Data. A Dictionary of Archaeology. Eds. Shaw, Ian and Robert Jameson. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 2002. 194. Archaeology is like life: if youre going to accomplish anything you have to learn to live with regret, learn from mistakes, and get on with it.  Tom King. 2005. Doing Archaeology. Left Coast Press Partaking of the Past Throne Room, Palace of Knossos, Crete, Greece. Ed Freeman / Getty Images The archaeologist partakes of, contributes to, is validated by, and dutifully records present-day social and political structures in the identification of research problems and in the interpretation of findings. It remains for reflective, socio-political research in archaeology to decipher the present while we unearth the past, and to distinguish the two whenever possible. Joan Gero. 1985. Socio-politics and the woman-at-home ideology. American Antiquity 50(2):347 Archaeology is not simply the finite body of artefactual evidence uncovered in excavations. Rather, archaeology is what archaeologists say about that evidence. It is the ongoing process of discussing the past which is, in itself, an ongoing process. Only recently have we begun to realise the complexity of that discourse. ... [T]he discipline of archaeology is a site of disputationa dynamic, fluid, multidimensional engagement of voices bearing upon both past and present. John C. McEnroe. 2002. Cretan Questions: Politics and archaeology 1898-1913. In Labyrinth Revisited: Rethinking Minoan Archaeology, Yannis Hamilakis, editor. Oxbow Books, Oxford Public archaeology is not only a matter of working with communities or providing educational opportunities. It is about management and the construction of knowledge and the concept of heritage. Lorna-Jane Richardson, and Jaime Almansa-Snchez. Do You Even Know What Public Archaeology Is? Trends, Theory, Practice, Ethics. World Archaeology 47.2 (2015): 194-211. Print. [Archaeology] is not what you find, it’s what you find out. David Hurst Thomas. 1989. Archaeology. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 2nd edition, page 31. I can understand archaeology being attacked on the ground of its excessive realism, but to attack it as pedantic seems to be very much beside the mark. However, to attack it for any reason is foolish; one might just as well speak disrespectfully of the equator. For archaeology, being a science, is neither good nor bad, but a fact simply. Its value depends entirely on how it is used, and only an artist can use it. We look to the archaeologist for the materials, to the artist for the method. Indeed, archaeology is only really delightful when transfused into some form of art. Oscar Wilde. 1891. The Truth of Masks, Intentions (1891), and page 216 in The Works of Oscar Wilde. 1909. Edited by Jules Barbey dAurevilly, Lamb: London. The Search for Fact Tikal - the Rebel Base. Hector Garcia Archaeology is the search for fact, not truth. Indiana Jones. 1989. Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. Screenplay by Jeff Boam, story by George Lucas and Menno Meyjes. An aware, responsible and engaged global archaeology might be a relevant, positive force which recognizes and celebrates difference, diversity and real multivocality. Under common skies and before divided horizons, exposure to global difference and alterity prompts us all to seek responses and responsibility. Lynn Meskell. 1998. Introduction: Archaeology matters. In Archaeology Under Fire. Lynn Meskell (ed.), Routledge Press, London. p. 5. Archaeology is the study of humanity itself, and unless that attitude towards the subject is kept in mind archaeology will be overwhelmed by impossible theories or a welter of flint chips. Margaret Murray. 1961. First steps in archaeology. Antiquity 35:13 This has become the archaeologists grandiose task: to make dried-up wellsprings bubble forth again, to make the forgotten known again, the dead alive, and to cause to flow once more that historic stream in which we are all encompassed. C. W. Ceram. 1949. Gods, Graves and Scholars. Thanks to Marilyn Johnson for the suggestion. Archaeology is the only discipline that seeks to study human behavior and thought without having any direct contact with either. Bruce G. Trigger. 1991. Archaeology and epistemology: Dialoguing across the Darwinian chasm. American Journal of Archaeology 102:1-34. A Voyage to the Past Archaeology is our voyage to the past, where we discover who we were and therefore who we are. Camille Paglia. 1999. Mummy Dearest: Archaeology is Unfairly Maligned by Trendy Academics. Wall Street Journal, p. A26 [Archaeology is] a vast fiendish jigsaw puzzle invented by the devil as an instrument of tantalizing torture.  Paul Bahn. 1989 Bluff your way through archaeology. Egmont House: London The role of New World archaeology in providing material for the study of aesthetics is not inconsiderable, but is tangential to the main interest and non-significant from the point of view of theory. In short, paraphrasing [Frederic William] Maitlands famous dictum: New World archaeology is anthropology or it is nothing. Philip Phillips. 1955. American archaeology and general anthropological theory. Southwestern Journal of Archaeology 11:246. By and by, anthropology will have the choice between being history and being nothing. Frederic William Maitland. 1911. The Collected Papers of Frederic William Maitland, vol. 3. Edited by H.A.L. Fisher. This feature is part of the About.com Guide to Field Definitions of Archaeology and Related Disciplines. Geoff Carvers Collection of Archaeology Definitions Archaeology is that branch of science which is concerned with past phases of human culture; in practice it is concerned more, but not exclusively, with early and prehistoric phases than with those illustrated by written documents. O.G.S. Crawford, 1960. Archaeology in the Field. Phoenix House, London. [Archaeology] is the method of finding out about the past of the human race in its material aspects, and the study of the products of this past. Kathleen Kenyon, 1956. Beginning in Archaeology. Phoenix House, London. Archaeology Definition: A Few Thousand Years British archaeologist Leonard Woolley (right) and T E Lawrence with a Hittite bas-relief in basalt at the ancient city of Carchemish, Turkey, 1913.   Pierre Perrin / Sygma / Getty Images Archaeology... deals with a period limited to a few thousand years and its subject is not the universe, not even the human race, but modern man. C. Leonard Woolley, 1961. Digging up the Past. Penguin, Harmondsworth. Archaeology is what archaeologists do. David Clarke, 1973 Archaeology: the loss of innocence. Antiquity 47:6-18. Archaeology is, after all, one discipline. David Clarke, 1973 Archaeology: the loss of innocence. Antiquity 47:6-18. Defining Archaeology: The Value of an Object Field Archaeology is the application of scientific method to the excavation of ancient objects, and it is based on the theory that the historical value of an object depends not so much on the nature of the object itself as on its associations, which only scientific excavation can detect... digging consists very largely in observation, recording and interpretation. C. Leonard Woolley, 1961. Digging up the Past. Penguin, Harmondsworth. Archaeology – the knowledge of how man has acquired his present position and powers – is one of the widest studies, best fitted to open the mind, and to produce that type of wide interests and toleration which is the highest result of education. William Flinders Petrie, 1904 Methods and Aims in Archaeology. Macmillan and Co., London. Archaeology Definition: Not Things, But People If there be a connecting theme in the following pages, it is this: an insistence that the archaeologist is digging up, not things, but people. R.E. Mortimer Wheeler, 1954. Archaeology from the Earth. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Field archaeology is, not surprisingly, what archaeologists do in the field. However, it also has a considerable pre-field element and an even more considerable post-field element. Sometimes the term ‘field archaeology’ is used only to refer to techniques, other than excavation, used by archaeologists in the field. ‘Field archaeology’ used in this way refers essentially to the battery of non-destructive field techniques used to locate areas of archaeological interest (sites). Peter L. Drewett, 1999. Field Archaeology: An Introduction. UCL Press, London. We are concerned here with methodical digging for systematic information, not with the upturning of earth in a hunt for the bones of saints and giants or the armoury of heroes, or just plainly for treasure. R.E. Mortimer Wheeler, 1954. Archaeology from the Earth. Oxford University Press, Oxford. The Material Remains of the Human Past Classical Greek terracotta gorgoneion antefix (roof tile), 2nd half of 5th c BC. The Metropolitan Museum, New York The Greeks and Romans, though they were interested in the early development of man and in the status of their barbarian neighbours, did not develop the necessary prerequisites for writing prehistory, namely the collection, excavation, classification, description and analysis of the material remains of the human past. Glyn E. Daniel, 1975. A Hundred and Fifty Years of Archaeology. 2nd ed. Duckworth, London. [Archaeology] researches tending to illustrate the monuments and remains of antiquity. T. J. Pettigrew, 1848. Introductory address. Transactions of the British Archaeological Association 1-15. So lsst sich Archologie bestimmen als die Wissenschaft vom materiellen Erbe der antiken Kulturen des Mittelmeerraumes. German. August Herman Niemeyer, cited in C. Huber and F. X. Schà ¼tz, 2004. Einfà ¼hrung in Archologische Informationssysteme (AIS): Ein Methodenspektrum fà ¼r Schule, Studium und Beruf mit Beispielen auf CD. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein.

Divide and Conquer Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Divide and Conquer - Assignment Example Moreover, the study helps in developing a better understanding of the political processes and the relationship of different actors with each other and their impact on the system as a whole (Cunningham, 2011). The author argues that the study will explain in detail the concept of divide and conquer and divide and concede. He also argues that the logic behind them helps in determining the frequency, effects, and size of concessions. The author finally argues that the research will show how internal divisions affect the concessions (Cunningham, 2011). The researcher focuses on the divided and unitary characteristics of self determination movements and argues that it is important to study these characteristics as they help us in understanding which self determination movements have more control and which methods are more effective. The author argues that the study will help in getting insight on how the states respond to divided and unitary self determination movements and highlight the difference between them (Cunningham, 2011). The author argues that the governments are less likely to make concessions to divided self determination movements as the movements are weak and thus the threat is not as strong. The author uses the example of Yasser Arafat who failed to deliver to Palestinians after negotiations (Cunningham, 2011). The logic behind the concept is that if the government feels that the concessions will not settle the dispute, they are not likely to make settlements with divided self determination movements. The divide and concede logic argues that groups that are in favor of independence respond well to limited concessions. The state makes use of concessions in the bargaining process in favor of the moderates within the movement giving rise to the competition between different factions in the movement. It is different from divide

Discussion Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 19

Discussion Questions - Essay Example This difference has caused social and economic changes in Europe and United States, which include aging population, changing role of women in the labor force, changing family structure, and demographic shifts towards urbanization (Bloom, Canning & Fink, 2008, 15). Labor force is expected to increase but due to changes in age participation rates and low fertility, youth dependency is lowered and female participation in the labor force increases. Economic growth apace and aging population proliferates due to betterment of health care. Thus, to stabilize and increase populations, developed countries focused on behavioral and economic responses that would aid in the betterment of health of working individuals to improve economic growth (Bloom, Canning & Fink, 2008, 1). 2. You are studying the community of a small pond and discover two similar species of fish. You believe they may be competitors, but you want scientific evidence to support or refute this idea. How would you conduct research, including studies you might carry out and findings you would expect if your hypothesis were true? Explain. Answer: To support the belief that two similar species of fish can be competitors, a research should be conducted and started through review of literatures, studies, and theoretical bases as these would provide the strong foundation for the study. For instance, Helfman, Collette, Facey & Bowen (2009) support the idea that members of the same species (like fishes) can compete with the resources and is called intraspecific competition (542). Researcher might carry out an experimental type of research observing two set ups – two same species of fish and two different species of fish to differentiate existence of competition or to assess the degree of competition between two set ups. The existence of competition even with the same species is the expected

Health and Social Care Act Essay Example for Free

Health and Social Care Act Essay Legislation: Health and Social Care Act; the Medicines Act and The Misuse of Drugs Act. Guidelines could include the Nursing Midwifery Guidelines for the management of medicine administration registered nurses have to abide by this set of guidelines and for paid carers, the General Social Care Councils Code of Conduct will have something which could relate to medication. Policy for example consider the Governments drive to ensure people with dementia are not over medicated so their policy is currently designed to push the professionals responsible for prescribing to bear in mind the effect of drugs on frail elderly people and to consider alternative treatments such as activities and therapies. Other examples of policy might be the Government’s drive to limit the prescribing of antibiotics to reduce the incidence of resistant strains of bacteria. Protocols a protocol is a procedure and you could outline your companys procedure (protocol) for disposing of controlled drugs or medication in general. 2- Know about common types of medication and their use. Antibiotics- The most common side effects of antibiotics affect the digestive system. These occur in around 1 in 10 people. Side effects of antibiotics that affect the digestive system include: being sick feeling sick diarrhea bloating and indigestion abdominal pain loss of appetite Ibuprofen- Ibuprofen can cause a number of side effects. For this reason, take lowest possible dose of ibuprofen for the shortest possible time needed to control your symptoms. Common side effects of ibuprofen include: nausea (feeling sick) vomiting (being sick) diarrhoea (passing loose, watery stools) indigestion (dyspepsia) abdominal (tummy) pain Antihistamine- Common side effects of first-generation antihistamines include: drowsiness impaired thinking dry mouth dizziness constipation blurred vision an inability to fully empty the bladder (urinary retention) Drugs like insulin (blood has to be taken from a pinprick so that glucose can be measured before the insulin can be given); warfarin to thin the blood again blood levels must be checked regularly; digoxin to slow and steady the heart (pulse should be checked prior to administration and advice taken if the pulse dips below 60 beats per minute) Common adverse reactions might be diarrhoea (some antibiotics for example); skin rashes; nausea through to serious adverse reactions such as anaphylactic shock (facial swelling, blistering of the skin, wheezing and hives) leading to total system collapse and (if not treated with adrenalin) death. The different routes of medication administration are orally, injection/intravenous, creams, and liquids. 3- Understand procedure and techniques for the administration of medication. The required information from prescriptions and medication administration charts are medication name, the name of the person the mediation is prescribed for, dosage, freq uency/PRN and medication strength. 4- Prepare for the administration of medication. Standard precautions for infection control would be hand washing, ppe for  example gloves and aprons etc. In a structured health care setting, medication would be administered to the patient or resident or client by a nurse, such as an RN or LPN whoever was assigned to be the med nurse. In other facilities, medication is administered by persons with med certs (certification training to administer meds). Its a very specific, precise duty. Meds are secured in locked rooms, areas, and carts. No one is allowed access except the med nurse or scheduled med cert. (person). Meds have to be administered in the correct dosage, which can only be according to a doctors prescription. Dosage cannot be altered unless a doctor alters or updates the Rx. The person administering the meds must observe the person they administer them to and ensure that they took them. Pocketing meds (in the cheek), or refusing meds are handled according to the persons meds and orders. Sometimes it is marked as declined / refused meds. Sometimes, it is documented that they did not swallow it initially and had to be encourag ed, etc. or whatever happened according to the facilities guidelines. Meds are always, and must be, administered and documented accurately when they are administered (contemporaneously). Meds are prescribed to be given sometimes at certain intervals. If the med is a few minutes late, no one is to assume that it was already administered, and skip it. Likewise, if it is offered a little early and that is appropriate according to the order, the med, or the patient request, etc. and it is not documented correctly and contemporaneously, and a second dose is administered, assuming it is on time, and assuming falsely that it was not recently administered (upon request or whatever the circumstances were), then the patient would have been given an incorrect dosage, more than they were prescribed. You know that with some meds, that could be very a very serious overdose, sometimes terminal. They do try to put many checks and balances in place to prevent as much human error as possible, but it can happen. The consequences are usually pretty severe. A med cert would automatically lose their med certification, and they would be disciplined up to, and including, termination. With a licensed nurse, Im not as sure of the procedure, but Im fairly certain it would definitely include reporting the med error or  abuse, suspension without pay, an internal (or perhaps external) investigation, and disciplinary actions up to and including termination. Also, unauthorized access and theft of prescription medications whether by the assigned med nurse, or an outside party, would automatically involve criminal charges. And of course, criminal charges are always a possibility in the other two scenarios I presented above for med certs and nurses, depending on the laws, the circumstances, and the outcome of the investigations. Like I said, very serious consequences. And it’s not like someone could just take a med and it could go unnoticed. med admin documentation is reviewed / audited at least daily, if not more often, and if someone was suspected of confiscating meds, such as narcotics, the building, in some agencies would go into lock-down and staff could / wo uld be subjected to a search.

Following The Article In The S :: essays research papers

Following the article in the Standard Newspaper dated 8/07/1998 on â€Å"Customer Care Improvement by Robert L Fousler (MD) Consultant s for Effective Training, I am in total agreement with him concerning the points that he has put forth concerning Customer Care within business organizations. Customer Care is an important point in management and should be carried out by any manager within any business organization irrespective of what departments he is directly of indirectly in charge of. It is important to note that a business or organization cannot effectively attract customers /clients if it cannot deal with its internal clients. In any business/organization, internal clients are the employees within the organization. Mr. Fousler mentions that in Kenya, many industries in the market and developing from a â€Å"Sellers† market into a â€Å"Buyers† market. This means that the only difference between one Seller and another will be in the quality of the service rendered to them. In addition to this, the expectations and demands of clients have been increasing and have been rapidly dynamic over the past five years and in order for you to please, and indeed, maintain a client then the services rendered to them should be adequate and ready to fulfill their needs. Most service industries, if not all, are all client/customer oriented and they depend on the client to pay for their services that are intangible. With this in mind, it is in their best interest to ensure that the services they offer are useful to the client and that the Customer Support is highly advanced and effectively operational. In reference to this, it is important for organizations, particularly those in the service industry, to realize that their future success is dependant on managers viewing their staff as the most important assets they have and that everything depends on how they work as a team. He goes on to mention that Customer Care skills should not only be offered to staff in service-oriented organizations but to all organizations in general. If people can serve one another and each department serving the other, then the Customer Service skills will be extended to the â€Å"External† customer. He also highlights the importance of Customer Care in any organization and says that it is not wise to train only certain sections in the organization since everything everyone does in the organization has an impact on the client in one way or the other.

Appropriate Technology Essay

Emerging economies all across Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe and the Middle East frequently look up to the developed ones in Europe and North America. This has less to do with cultural and social values and more to do with their relative level of prosperity. As Alex Steffen (2006, pp. 18-19) asserts, the kids of Cape Town and Novosibirsk don’t want to be Americans, rather they want to be who they are but with the benefits of technological modernity and development. Many pundits wrongly presume that improving less-developed communities requires implementation of a Rostovian model of development – linear evolution from certain economic states to more sophisticated ones –   but the problem is that they have limited success in nations where there are deficits in political will, infrastructure and in some cases, resources. As the Sustainable Times (2008) notes, many of these nations are â€Å"worse off than before they began to ‘develop’.† Village Earth’s (n.d.) Appopriate Technology Sourcebook opines that the result has been the ‘modernization of poverty’ in which farmland ownership has becoming increasingly consolidated, communities have become divided and individuals must operate on the fringe of economic activity to survive. As it stands, much the success of Rostovian models of modernization and development in European and Northern American nation-states have been born from exploitation and colonialism, if not entirely unsustainable. Nonetheless, the issue of development (or lack thereof) descends to levels deeper than just material prosperity, but matters of acquiring basic amenities such as clean water, decent shelter and a reliable food supply. With the aforementioned deficits in mind, it becomes necessary to find creative ways of fulfilling these needs rather than relying on the centralized forms of development which keep developed nations from sliding into a grim meathook future. This is where appropriate technology comes in, which is quite literally technology that is appropriate to the needs of a certain community, and suited to its uniquely salient attributes. Most commonly, this means addressing the deficits that exist because of a lack of capital-intensive development particular to modern urbanity. But a more critical understanding of appropriate technology is the recognition that technology does not follow a single path. Instead it is about realizing that the uniqueness of communities has a particular bearing on what kind of technological future is best suited to their needs. As the Village Earth notes: â€Å"It is a way of thinking about technological change; recognizing that [it] can evolve along different paths toward different ends. It also [recognizes that technology embodies] cultural biases and sometimes have political and distributional effects that go beyond a strictly economic evaluation.† (Village Earth, n.d.) Appropriate technology can be divided between hard technology and soft technology. The former refers to the application of engineering, machine science, physical structures and other forms of material technology devoted towards the realization of economic goals, whilst technologies dealing with the essence of human interactions, motivational psychology and social structures fall under the category of soft technology. (Albertson & Faulkner, 1986) Environmentalists, particularly those of the bright green camp which embrace technological solutions to the concerns of the planet, are known to endorse appropriate technology because they posses many features that are relevant to issues of sustainability such as low cost implementation, maximization of limited resources and to some extent, the development of   closed-loop systems which make such low-cost efficiency possible. For the most part, this involves employing creative solutions to common problems. Take for instance the problem of water supply in sub-Saharan Africa. For the vast majority of its people, acquiring water requires distant trips to water sources that are kilometers away. One solution to this is the Roundabout PlayPump, which utilizes the energy generated by children playing on an outdoor merry-go-round to pump underground water from depths of up to 40 meters into a 2,500 liter tank at the rate of 1,400 liters per hour. Over 500 of these pumps have been installed in South Africa, where clean water is scarce, and freeing children of the time they spend hauling water during after-school hours. (Danby, 2004) Another example of creative design is the Q-DRUM, which is essentially a wheel-shaped water container. It’s a simple approach – making a heavy barrel that bruises the neck and strains the spine into a rolling wheel – that makes you wonder why they didn’t think of it before. By running a rope through the wheel’s hole, the chore of water hauling becomes much less burdensome. (Project H Design, 2007) Surprisingly enough, low cost solutions are not limited to the simplest of needs. MIT-based inventor Amy Smith has developed many low cost solutions to problems in the developing Third World. One of her inventions is a method for producing charcoal, from agricultural waste such as sugar cane bagasse, for use as a cooking fuel. Previously, Haitians harvested trees for their cooking fuel and this innovation has been used to help address deforestation in Haiti, where thousands die annually from massive flooding. (Dean, 2004) Another invention of Smith’s is a phase-change incubator. She has also developed a phase-change incubator that relies on a highly portable fuel source – essentially a cheap chemical compound shaped into marble dimensions – to maintain a temperature of 37 °C for a period of 24 hours and obviating the need for an existing power grid, a concern all too common in the most lowly developed of communities. (Kennedy, 2003)

Compare the ways the poets write about love or the absence of love Essay

Love is an emotional force to be reckoned with, and a pure source of inspiration for poets. Modern and ancient, love is a common theme of poetry; it enables poets to discuss there most inner feelings behind clever literary techniques and paradoxical phrases. Such techniques can be found in Shakespeare’s sonnet 130. In this sonnet he destroys the conventional view we have of such sonnets of the time. He takes the standard love sonnet and turns it on its head: â€Å"black wires grow on her head,† this, in any woman’s eyes is far from a compliment. Contradictorily, Ben Johnson’s on my first sonne’ is clear and obvious: â€Å"Farewell, thou child of my right hand,† this statement clearly delivers a sense of lament from Johnson, not only this but he compares his son to Jesus, â€Å"of my right hand† this was the place that God gave his son. Even the title gives a clear indication as to what he is writing about, â€Å"On My First Sonne† the word â€Å"sonne† gives a sense of incompleteness as if we add a -t to the end of the word it makes sonnet, furthermore the poem is written in sonnet form however it is only twelve lines and not the standard fourteen lines. All of this conveys further to the reader Johnson’s incompleteness through the loss of his son and his loss of love for life through this. â€Å"What he loves may never like too much,† this is the final nail in the coffin for Ben Jonson’s remaining hope in the world as he vows to never love something as much as he id his son for fear of loosing it like he lost his son. Such intense love for his son can be seen when he states â€Å"Ben. Jonson his best piece of poetry,† in this fleeting moment he denounces all his work in honour and in love for his dead son. Such a sensitive tone cannot be seen in Shakespeare’s sonnet 130 until the end: â€Å"And yet by heaven I think as rare,† here we can see that William is declaring that despite his mistresses â€Å"reek† and her â€Å"wires† for hair he still thinks she is â€Å"belied with false compare,† this proves to the reader that love does not always take the form of beauty and glamour or ever good smelling breath, but can also be achieved through an honest personality and good nature, This proves to the reader that love is not based upon looks, and perhaps a true love is that which sees your partners flaws, admits that maybe other people are more beautiful, more special, more wonderful, yet that he loves her flaws and imperfections, making his love the most true. A very different perception of love is described in Duffy’s Anne Hathaway; she talks in this poem about the sexual encounters Anne Hathaway has with her husband Shakespeare. The poem is written in sonnet for so as to mimic Shakespeare’s famous form of poetry. It also ends with a rhyming couplet which was also a technique commonly used by Shakespeare. â€Å"Romance.† This single word is highlighted by a caesura; this tells the audience that love in this case is romance and story endings. Duffy uses fairytale iconography to emphasise this point â€Å"torchlight, cliff tops†¦Ã¢â‚¬  this fairytale imagery shows us that Anne Hathaway desired a fairytale happy ending, and it tells us that on that second bed Shakespeare took her there. In Armitage’s Home Coming he addresses a love based on trust â€Å"arms spread wide and free fall† this shows us that he believes that for his â€Å"two things on their own and both at once† there has to be trust involved, this description of â€Å"two things on their own and both at once,† is clearly describing the love he feels for his wife who he is writing about. â€Å"Im waiting by the phone† this shows the audience that he wants to call his wife because he understands the situation she is in however he cannot be a shoulder to lean on in such a situation as this because he is not with her in the phone box. The image of the phone box shows the desperation she feels and how she needs contact, not necessarily with someone she loves, but just a shoulder to lean on. In all four poems I have looked at very different views and perspectives of love. Each of the poets produces a slightly varied definition of love; for Jonson it is cause for lament, for Shakespeare it is cause to learn, for Armitage it is about trust and guidance, and for Duffy it is about romance. This proves that love has a different meaning for each and every person it touches.

The Rise of Municipal Police Forces essays

The Rise of Municipal Police Forces essays While the history of American policing can be traced to its English origins, the American system of policing evolved from an amalgamation of systems from England, France, and Spain. Many policing problems plagued the new cities of America. They included controlling certain classes, including slaves and Indians; maintaining order; regulating specialized functions such as selling in the market, delivering goods, making bread, packing goods for export; maintaining health and sanitation; ensuring the orderly use of the streets by vehicles; controlling liquor; controlling gambling and vice; controlling weapons; managing pests and other animals (Nalla These early police services had little to do with crime control, and were performed by volunteer citizens who served on slave patrols or Night Watches. Policing became formalize with the adoption of regular night watches, manned by volunteers that ultimately culminated in paid forces that provided service around the clock. These forces underwent reform that professionalized (bureaucratized) and attempted to depoliticize the police. In this process, police narrowed their mandate to crime-fighting, and motorized patrol replaced foot patrol with the police rapidly adopting more modern technology. The bulk of modern police history shows that each succeeding advance inadvertently distanced the police further and further from the people they ostensibly served. Each effort to improve police efficiency and effectiveness was a response to an obvious social problem, but few recognized the downside to each change was increasing isolation from the community. Though the system had serious flaws , night watches functioned fairly well as long as America remained primarily an agrarian society. However, at the turn of the nineteenth century, the drawbacks were becoming difficult to ignore. One major problem was that local watchmen were notoriously lax, ...

Wedding Rehearsal Dinner Toast Quotes Page

Wedding Rehearsal Dinner Toast Quotes Page It is the night before the important day. Rehearsal dinners are less formal than the actual wedding dinner. But often, close family members and friends make rehearsal dinner toasts to the bride and groom. With an appropriate choice of words, good rehearsal dinner toasts can set the right mood for the big day. Here are some quotes for rehearsal dinner toasts. Amy TanI am like a falling star who has finally found her place next to another in a lovely constellation, where we will sparkle in the heavens forever. Don ByasYou call it madness, but I call it love. Ralph BlockYoure nothing short of my everything. Robert BrowningGrow old with me! The best is yet to be. Margot AsquithShe tells enough white lies to ice a wedding cake. Roy CroftI love youNot for what you areBut for what I am when I am with you. William Butler YeatsI have spread my dreams under your feetTread softly because you tread on my dreams. The NotebookThe best love is the kind that awakens the soul and makes us reach for more, that plants a fire in our hearts and brings peace to our minds, and thats what youve given me. Thats what I hope to give to you forever. Kahlil GibranMarriage is like a golden ring in a chain, whose beginning is a glance and whose ending is eternity. SophoclesOne word frees us of all the weight and pain of life: that word is love. Cole PorterNight and day you are the one,Only you beneath the moon and under the sun. PlatoAt the touch of love, everyone becomes a poet. PlautusLet us celebrate the occasion with wine and sweet words. Arthur RubinsteinIt took great courage to ask a beautiful young woman to marry me. Believe me, it is easier to play the whole Petrushka on the piano. HomerThere is nothing nobler or more admirable than when two people who see eye to eye keep house as man and wife, confounding their enemies and delighting their friends. Erma BombeckPeople shop for a bathing suit with more care than they do a husband or wife. The rules are the same. Look for something youll feel comfortable wearing. Allow for room to grow. Gwendolyn BrooksWe are each others harvest; we are each others business; we are each others magnitude and bond. Marc ChagallIn our life there is a single color, as on an artists palette, which provides the meaning of life and art. It is the color of love. Langston HughesWhen people care for you and cry for you, they can straighten out your soul. Ogden NashTo keep your marriage brimming, with love in the wedding cup, whenever you’re wrong, admit it; whenever you’re right, shut up. Ronald ReaganThe man who puts into the marriage only half of what he owns will get that out. Ruth Bell GrahamA good marriage is the union of two good forgivers. I Corinthians 13:13There are three things that last: faith, hope, and love, and the greatest of these is love. Maryon PearsonBehind every great man, there is a surprised woman. Walter RauschenbuschWe never live so intensely as when we love strongly. We never realize ourselves so vividly as when we are in full glow of love for others. Lao TzuTo love someone deeply gives you strength. Being loved by someone deeply gives you courage. Antoine de Saint-ExuperyLove does not consist in gazing at each other, but in looking outward together in the same direction. Oscar WildeBigamy is having one wife too many. Monogamy is the same. John Keating, Dead Poets SocietyWe dont read and write poetry because its cute. We read and write poetry because we are members of the human race. And the human race is filled with passion. And medicine, law, business, engineering, these are noble pursuits and necessary to sustain life. But poetry, beauty, romance, love, these are what we stay alive for. Beverly NicholsMarriage a book of which the first chapter is written in poetry and the remaining chapters written in prose. Douglas JerroldIn all of the wedding cake, hope is the sweetest of plums. City of AngelsI would rather have had one breath of her hair, one kiss from her mouth, one touch of her hand, than eternity without it.

Introduction Of Restorative Justice In The Superior Courts Essay

Introduction Of Restorative Justice In The Superior Courts - Essay Example The current paradigm of the justice system is under immense pressure to showcase its effectiveness as it has been plagued by dilemmas and controversies that could derail public trust, a critical prerequisite for justice systems. A new philosophy/approach to justice issues is being muted as a solution based on a perspective that views crime as a symptom hence seeks to address the underlying causes in a more participative and inclusive direction in regards to all relevant stakeholders. This philosophy termed restorative Justice (RJ) recognizes that crime is injurious to individuals and communities and seeks to involve these two parties in the repair of this injury. The increasing importance of RJ is the justification for this study to inform the Attorney General on the philosophy and practicability in the judicial system. The concept and processes involved will be discussed, followed by establishing the admissibility of various cases to it and finally the legal basis as to why it shoul d be introduced. The Concept of Restorative Justice Restorative Justice has been described as a concept that offers both a philosophy for conflict resolution and a model for criminal justice and can be termed to be a model for resolution of conflict and repairing of harm. The basic tenets of RJ are based on criminology and victimology wherein respective fashion those responsible for harm are encouraged to acknowledge the impact of their actions and are given an opportunity to make amends for their actions while the victims are given the opportunity to have their harm or loss acknowledged beside amends being made. In essence, RJ has the ultimate goal of restoring the well-being of all the parties involved i.e. the victims, offenders and the community with an aim to reduce the impacts of crime and prevent similar occurrences in future (Strang, 2001). Barton (2003) is of the view that RJ is more of an empowerment model of justice where circumscribed/bounded empowerment is availed throu gh restorative processes that are consistent with shared societal norms and standards and the law itself. For a restorative justice definition to be operational it should consist of three elements. To begin with, crime is a conflict between individuals that result to injuries to the victims, offenders, and the community at large hence it is a primary violation to these parties and only a secondary violation to the state. The second idea that informs criminal justice is that the essential aim of the justice system in any nation should be to repair the damage caused by crime and bring peace to the community through reconciling all parties involved. The previous two elements are philosophical in nature while the third one is based on how RJ should be undertaken. It should involve the participation of the victims, offenders and the community actively and not victimise any individual but to find solutions to the initial conflict that brought the crime.

Organizational Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Organizational Communication - Essay Example This paper therefore analyzes the findings from the paper on the tools of communication adopted by TWA to dominate the Ozark employees. The findings of the study revealed that communication processes can be effectively employed in understanding how power is created, enacted as well as maintained. It is the assertion of the study that power does not just exist but it is deliberately created, enacted and maintained through communicative efforts and behaviors by members of an organization. Though power is to a higher side determined by resource endowment by a firm, the process of communication only makes the actualization of real power from the resources. Communication in the form of domination of power comes in as the parties involved interact. Therefore, communication as a tool can be exploited for the betterment of an organization through creation of favorable working/relational environment or adversely through creating unfavorable environment. The TWA company employed dividing pract ices towards the Ozark employees in order to establish power-as-domination especially by communication as a tool for the power imbalance. The domination of power was felt from the TWA towards the Ozark and the various modes of communications were employed as the means of realizing the vice. Communication was employed in creation of power-as-domination in its complex status. The complexity of power-as-domination as created through communication meant that understanding the mergers would entail multiple perspectives of concepts. In the case under analysis, communication was employed to create power structures besides enactment as well as maintenance of power-as-domination. Power structures imply that there was disparity in the levels of association and interaction by the members of the organization. Some people enjoyed power benefits while others participated at a relatively low level. Those in higher power structures exercised authority to those operating at lower structures of power as illustrated by communication. However, concerning the TWA, power-as-domination was not invented in the process of acquiring the Ozark but rather had been previously designed by the members. The power structures created by the use of communication as a tool by the TWA enabled it to level coercion and threats towards the Ozark employees. In order to enforce compliance from the pilots of the Ozark, size disparities as well as threats were employed by the TWA. In the process, fences, branding, resistance as well as symbolic divisions were employed for the maintenance of the power structures created through communication. Surprisingly, the Ozark employees had a unique identity feature, which equally served as communication to identify them easily distinctively from the TWA employees. They used tattoos, green stitching, labels on clothing as well as Ozark pins, which in essence made the work of TWA in establishing, enacting and maintaining power towards them quite easy. In general, th e study affirmed that power-as-domination as a tool employed through communication served to create divisions among the employees. The employees from the Ozark organization received an unfair treatment from the TWA managers as they exercised the power created through communication. TWA managed to convince the Ozark into the merger deal through communication where such coercion and brutality was involved. In the like manner,

Opportunities of Emerging Market Multinational Enterprises Assignment

Opportunities of Emerging Market Multinational Enterprises - Assignment Example There are numerous opportunities in developed markets that can be tapped by EMMEs. The first opportunity that EMMEs have in developed countries is the high number of middle income consumers. Developed markets normally have a large proportion of people in the middle income category as compared to emerging. Middle income consumers comprise of the largest consumer base in developed markets (Tse, Russo, & Haddock, 2011). The middle income earners have a high purchasing power which presents a valuable opportunity for EMMEs in the developed market. Middle income consumers are willing and able to pay high prices for products and services from the EMMEs. Middle income consumers are able to drive up the profitability of enterprise. EMMEs can tap into this segment by embracing innovation, branding and implementing effective marketing policies targeted at this category. The EMMEs should be flexible enough to develop product lines that can attract this segment of consumers. The company must carr y out market research to identify the product attributes that are desirable in that particular consumer segment and comply accordingly in order to attract more customers. Developed markets present the opportunity of highly advanced technology and equipment. Unlike the home bases in emerging markets, developed markets have more advanced technology and equipment. The lack of technological and machinery advancement in emerging markets puts a strain on the effectiveness and productivity of the EMMEs.

Reflective Essay About Moving And Handling Skill Nursing Essay

Reflective Essay About Moving And Handling Skill Nursing Essay This reflective essay will be about moving and handling skill, which took place during my placement where I was supposed to learn and practicalised my nursing skills. In describing the event, I will be using Gibbs reflective cycle (1988) (see appendix: 1) to analyse my actions and feelings. For the purpose of confidentiality, the name of the service user and place where the event took place as been made anonymous (Nursing and Midwifery Council 2009). Description I was on placement in a nursing home when my mentor asked me to transfer John from his bed to a wheel chair. John is 60 years old man, who suffered from osteoarthritis. Before I carried out the task, my mentor had explained to me what I need to do when transferring a service user from the bed to the wheel chair. My mentor was also present at the scene to provide me with guidance and support; as the procedure required more than one person. When I approached John room I closed his door in order to maintain his dignity and privacy. Having done that, I obtained his consent and explained to him what I was going to do. However, I assessed the task ahead of me by completing a moving and handling assessment form. This enables me to provide for the appropriate equipment (wheelchair and full body hoist sling) needed to transfer John. I ask my mentor to assist me to fix the sling on John, as the task required more than one carer. I then required John to tilt to one side of the bed so I can fix the sling under his body and the same process was carried out by my mentor on the other side putting Johns independence into consideration. The full body sling hook was attached to the hoist stand and John was carefully transferred from the bed to the wheelchair with maximum care without causing him further pain. When John was finally comfortable on the wheelchair, I asked him if he had experienced any pain as a result of the transfer he replied that the task was perfectly executed. Feelings At first, I was nervous about causing John any further pain knowing that his osteoarthritis condition is severe. However, I was pleased that John was satisfied at the end with the way the task was carried out as he appraised our effort. In addition, I felt piteous for John knowing his condition could be very painful. Evaluation It was good that I completed a moving and handling assessment form, as this enables me to transfer John with the appropriate equipment without causing him any pain. Dougherty and Lister (2009) postulated that the risk of injury to both carers and service users can be reduced by fully assessing the task and identifying the right equipment and procedure. They further warn that moving service users in bed without using appropriate equipment can cause friction and shearing to their skin, which is a common cause of pressure ulcers. Haslam et al (2007) supports the above view and went on to say that for moving and handling to be considered successful, the carer needs to employ minimal effort and the service user needs to experience minimal discomfort. However, Iggulder et al (2009) affirmed that assessment of task and training are not sufficient on their own to minimise the incidence of back pain. I was also satisfied that I obtain Johns consent and explained to him what I was going to do, which makes him to be cooperative throughout the task. Hogston and Simpson (2002) suggest that service users should be asked of their informed consent before administering any form of treatments to them. He further emphasised that this will allow the service users to have adequate information about their treatment and also promote a sense of independence. However, it was bad that I did not wear personal protective equipment before carrying out the task. According to the Department of Health (DH 2006) and the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE 2003) state that using protective equipment will reduce the risk of acquiring contamination from potentially infectious body fluids and transmitting microorganisms through hands or clothing. Health and Safety Executive (2004) supports this and went on to say that disposable apron and gloves should be worn for all direct care procedures with service user when there is likelihood of contact with blood, secretions and excretions or body fluids. Analysis The Health and Safety Executive (HSE 2004) describe moving and handling as any transporting or supporting of a service user (including sliding, rolling and tilting) with suitable equipment and technique. As a result, I used a full body hoist sling to transfer John to the wheelchair, due to his inability to stand on his both knees. Mandelstam (2003) affirmed that service users with painful knee injury such as osteoarthritis often have difficulty with mobility. Alternatively, I could have used a sliding board to transfer John as proposed by Pellatt (2005), but the nursing home has not got such equipment available. I required John to tilt as much as possible in order to maintain his independence while I affixed the full body hoist sling round his body. Gibson (1991) explains that empowering service users has benefits which include positive self-concept, increased personal satisfaction, a sense of control and improved quality of life. I was satisfied to have adopted the appropriate techn ique and used the right equipment to transfer John, as my mentor was present to support and guide me throughout the procedure. Royal College of Nursing (RCN 2007) states that mentor is a key support for students in practice in order to facilitate competence for registration. On reflection, if the appropriate equipment had not been used to transfer John, he could have secured further injury. The Health and Safety Executive (2004) supports this view and states that service users are at risk of shoulder injury, musculoskeletal disorder and tissue injury from inappropriate lifting into the sitting or standing position, or lowering them into the sitting position. However, Chell (2003) warns that undertaking unsafe handling practice could be construed as a form of abuse. Conclusion John was comfortably transferred without causing him any further pain which was the initial motive. On reflection, there is nothing significant I could have done differently as regards to moving and handling skill, my mentor was present to provide me with guidance and support throughout the task. However, I need to reflect on similar situation and develop my moving and handling skills so that I can independently carry out such task should the need arise again. In addition, It is imperative for me to wear protective clothing during such task in order to prevent cross infection (DH 2006 and NICE 2003). Action plan In future situation as such, I will ensure that the service user is transfer without causing him/her any form of injury. However, it is imperative for me to reflect on similar event and further develop my moving and handling skill by taking part in annually training. As this will facilitate a better practice in the future and also make me an independent expert practitioner (Benner 1984). In addition, should the situation resurface again I ensure that I wear protective clothing, so as to protect myself and the service user against infectious diseases.

Honor :: essays research papers

HONOR CAN BE DEFINED IN SO MANY WAYS CAN mean respect and esteem shown to another. HONOR may ALSO apply to the recognition of one's right to great respect or to any expression of such recognition IN SOME SITUATIONS IT implies profound respect mingled with love, devotion.There is a priceless respect that everyone in the world possesses, and that is the. respect of a person?s honor. A person?s honor is something that can not be bought, sold,. or traded it?s something that must be gained by the respect of your peers. An example of. how honor is seen in everyday life in through a persons word. The standard dictionary definition of honor first lists public regard and esteem under the word, with ethical conduct or high standards of justice and responsibility appearing much further down the list. This is reflected in the way the modern world treats the issue of honor. In ancient times, honor was the manner of being that we now describe as having integrity. In plain language, an honorable p erson avoids deception whenever possible, treats others with respect and sticks to her beliefs no matter how others think or act. People generally do not seem to behave very well toward each other any more.Honor determines the hierarchy of an individual while revealing his loyalty and true intentions. Reward comes for those at the top whose honor does not diminish, while a false or fleeting honor of a lesser mortal causes destruction. Exploring and discussing how to act honorably toward each other is a place to start.The greatest way to live with honor in this world is to be what we pretend to be. How can you be a person of integrity? First, figure out what integrity (honor) is. My mother used to say to treat others the way you wanted to be treated. Does anyone do that these days? Well, I know that I don't want to be cut off in traffic, or yelled at, or bumped into rudely at the grocery store, or left picking up garbage all over my yard from the street. So I could try not to do thos e things to other people. I won't cut off others in traffic, or yell, or act rude at the grocery store, or throw garbage in the street. That's just a place to start. Treat others the way you want to be treated.

Pdhpe Factors Affecting Performance

HSC Core 2: Factors Affecting Performance Chapter 5: How does training affect performance? Energy systems * alactacid system (ATP/PC) * lactic acid system * aerobic system Energy Systems The human body requires energy for its organs to function, internal processes to take place and to power muscular contractions for movement * Energy in the human body is stored in the chemical bonds that join atoms and is released when needed * The transformation of food, chemical energy, into energy that the muscles can use, mechanical energy, is the role of energy systems * Chemical energy is energy stored in bonds between atoms * Mechanical energy is motion or movement energy * Energy provided by food is measured in kilojoules (kJ) Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a high energy compound that stores and transfers energy to body cells * The ATP compound consists of a large molecule call adenosine and three smaller molecules called phosphate, each phosphate is held together by high energy bonds * When the last or terminal phosphate is detached, the energy stored in this bond becomes available and is transferred to the cells * Energy from ATP allows the fibres in muscles to contract, enabling movement * Once the phosphate molecule has detached it is referred to as Adenosine diphosphate * Resynthesis is the process of restoring ATP to its former state The three systems that make ATP available are: * The alactacid system (ATP/PC) * The lactic acid system (glycolytic system) * The aerobic system (oxygen system) * The alactacid and lactic acid systems are anaerobic pathways as they do not use oxygen for the resynthensis of ATP * The aerobic system uses oxygen for the resynthesis of ATP and is oxygen dependent * Although the energy systems are examined in isolation, they function together, the predominant energy system is the one being most utilised at that point in time Alactacid system (ATP/PC) ATP supplies within the body are only large enough to enable one explosive muscular contr action and lasts 1-2 seconds * Further muscular contraction relies on creatine phosphate breaking down, which provides energy for the phosphate to combine with the adenosine diphosphate to once again form adenosine triphosphate * Creatine phosphate (CP) is an energy rich compound that serves as an alternative energy source for muscular contraction * CP supplies are exhausted in 10-12 seconds and takes only 2 minutes to be fully restored in the presence of oxygen * We have about 90 grams of ATP stored and about 120 grams of CP stored * There are no fatiguing by-products of this system, however heat is produced Lactic acid system Glycogen is the storage form of glucose and is used for fuel when blood glucose levels decline * Glycolysis is the process of using glycogen or glucose as fuel * Anaerobic glycolysis is a process where glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce energy * Lactic acid is produced because insufficient oxygen results in the partial breakdown of glu cose, providing quick but limited ATP production, as well as the by-product lactic acid * As sufficient oxygen is not available during intense exercise, lactic acid levels rise and continue to rise as intensity increases * The fuel of the lactic acid system is carbohydrate in the form of glucose in the blood and stored glycogen * It is the dominant system used for intense activity performed between 30 seconds and 2/3 minutes * Excessively high levels of lactic acid prevent the muscle fibres from contracting and result in a rapid deterioration in performance * Lactate is processed in the mitochondria in the muscle cells, most is converted to carbon dioxide and water and some is converted to fuel * The lactate threshold is the point at which lactic acid accumulates rapidly in the blood * Lactic acid diffuses from the muscle and into the bloodstream taking between 30 minutes and an hour * Metabolism is the sum f all chemical processes within cells that transform substances into energy * A mole is the gram-molecular weight of a substance Aerobic system * Aerobic metabolism is the breakdown of fuel in the presence of oxygen to produce energy (ATP) * Glucose, fat and sometimes protein are used * As glycogen supplies are exhausted, fat becomes the dominant energy source * Fatigue occurs because fat requires more oxygen for metabolism than carbohydrate * It is the dominant energy system for exercise from about 2 minutes onwards * By products produced are carbon dioxide and water * To recover, it may take days to restore glycogen reserves depending on intensity and duration * E. g. triathlon, marathon, 1km swim, 10km run Types of training and training methods aerobic, e. g. continuous, fartlek, aerobic interval, circuit * anaerobic, e. g. anaerobic interval * flexibility, e. g. static, ballistic, PNF, dynamic * strength training, e. g. free/fixed weights, elastic, hydraulic Types of training and training methods The four types of training are: * Aerobic training * Anae robic training * Flexibility training * Strength training Aerobic training Uses the aerobic system as the main source of energy supply Training types include: * Continuous training * Fartlek training * Aerobic interval training * Circuit training Continuous training: * Involves sustained effort for over 20 minutes e. g. jogging, cycling and erobics * Heart rate must be within the target zone of 65%-85% max heart rate to enable physiological adaptations to take place * Long, slow distance training focuses on distance rather than speed Fartlek training: * In fartlek training, participants vary their speed and the terrain on which they are working, engaging both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems * Fartlek training is a combination of interval and continuous training because of its use of variations in speed and intensity * Intensity is varied through the use of bursts of speed, running up and down hills, group running with changing leadership and changing terrain types * Fartlek tra ining is particularly beneficial for games players who are frequently changing intensity e. g. rugby, basketball and soccer Aerobic interval training: Aerobic interval training involves alternating sessions of work and recovery * The short rest period does not allow enough time for full recovery and thus maintains stress on the aerobic system Circuit training: * Circuit training requires participants to move from one ‘station’ to another, performing specified exercises at each until they complete the circuit * Can either work aerobic or anaerobic system depending on intensity and duration * Participants aim to complete the circuit in the shortest possible time Anaerobic training * Anaerobic training uses high intensity work coupled with limited recovery to develop the anaerobic energy systems * Generally lasts less than 2 minutes and is of a high intensity * Develops greater tolerance for the lactic acid created Short anaerobic training lasts less than 25 seconds and de velops the ATP/PC system, medium anaerobic training lasts from 25 seconds to one minute and develops the lactic acid system and long anaerobic training lasts one to two minutes and develops lactic acid / aerobic systems Anaerobic interval: * Is sprint training over short distances using maximal effort with rests Flexibility training * Flexibility is the range through which joints and body parts are able to move * Flexibility is essential for prevention of injury, muscular relaxation, decreasing soreness and tightness following exercise and increased range of movement, maximising performance * Flexibility is affected by factors such as age, sex, temperature, exercise frequency and specificity * The four common types of stretching are static, dynamic, ballistic and PNF Static stretching: During static stretching the muscle is slowly and smoothly stretched to a position of no discomfort which is held for about 30 seconds * Static stretching is safe and should be used extensively in the rehabilitation of injury and cool-down phase of training Ballistic stretching: * Ballistic stretching involves repeated movements such as swinging and bouncing to gain extra stretch * This form of stretching activates the stretch reflex which is an involuntary muscle contraction that prevents fibre damage if muscles are being lengthened beyond their normal range * Ballistic stretching should only be used by advanced athletes and even then should follow a thorough warm-up and another form of stretching due to the ability of the force and momentum of the movement to be potentially harmful Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching: PNF stretching involves lengthening a muscle against a resistance provided by a partner * It is aimed at stretching and strengthening the muscle in a safe environment, can be used as a warm up, cool down or in rehabilitation * The progressive cycle involves stretching the muscle group using a static stretch, isometrically contracting the mu scle in the stretched position against the resistance of the partner for about 10 seconds, relaxing in the lengthened position for about 5 seconds, then repeating the static stretch and isometric contraction Dynamic stretching: * Dynamic stretching, commonly used in warm ups due to its attempt to imitate the movements of the game, uses speed and momentum with movements experienced in a game to increase flexibility * Dynamic stretching is continuous but the end position is not held Strength training Strength training is a form of training where the muscular contraction is resisted by calculated loads, thereby building the strength of the muscle * Strength is the ability of a muscle or muscle group to exert force against a resistance * Muscle hypertrophy is a term that refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the size of muscle cells * Strength training programs can be used for building strength, developing power, developing muscular endurance, injury rehabilitation and ge neral health benefits * There are many ways of creating resistance or an opposing force including free weights, weight machines, elastic bands and hydraulic resistance * Isotonic programs involves raising/lowering and pulling / pushing against a resistance to contract and lengthen muscle fibres * Isometric programs involve applying a resistance and using exercises in which the muscle length does not change * Repetitions are performed quickly to increase power and slowly to increase strength Free weights: Used to develop all muscles in a group at the same time * Use of barbells, dumbbells and hand weights * Most resistance is encountered when initiating the movement * Good technique is required to avoid injury * Include squat, bench press, bicep curl, calf raise, upright row and sit ups with weight Fixed / Weight machines: * Resistance is provided by stacked weights which can be adjusted by changing pin placements * Weight machines are particularly beneficial for isolating specific m uscles for development e. g. pec machine * There is less chance of injury than free weights as tracks restrict the way each movement can be performed Resistance bands (elastic): The bands are anchored by an immovable object or part of the body, and are stretched, creating a resistance * Most of the resistance is experienced at the end of the movement because this is where the elastic material is under the greatest tension * Is a cheap and portable form of resistance training Hydraulic resistance: * Resistance is felt through the entire movement and also with the corresponding movement to return it to its starting point * Greatest resistance is felt when performing movements at higher speeds Principles of training * progressive overload * specificity * reversibility * variety * training thresholds * warm up and cool down Principles of training * Effective training requires the implementation of a number of important principles Progressive overload The overload principle implies that gains in fitness or adaptations occur only when the training load is greater than normal and is progressively increased as improvements in fitness occur * Training produces certain physiological changes that allow the body to work at a higher level of intensity * These adaptations will not take place if the load or resistance is either too small or too big * A resistance that is too high results in the onset of fatigue as well as possible injury and the discontinuation of the activity * Progressive overload in aerobic training results in increased cardiac output and increased oxygen uptake * The application of it to strength training will result in muscle hypertrophy which is directly related to an increase in strength * In endurance programs the load increases need to be small and the adaptations take place slowly * Fastest gains are made in flexibility, then in strength Specificity * The specificity principle states that the greatest gains are made when activity in the training pr ogram resembles the movements in the game or activity * This principle is particularly important when considering the development of energy systems, muscle groups and components of fitness * Metabolic specificity refers to identifying the energy system or systems most appropriate to the activity and developing these systems through related training procedures Reversibility * The effects of training programs are reversible * This is referred to as the detraining effect Gains in aerobic fitness are gradually lost if training ceases, in strength programs losses are experienced quicker and even quicker in flexibility programs * If big gains have been made during training, greater losses will follow when training stops Variety * Repetition without variation can lead to boredom, injury and the overuse of individual muscles * General endurance, strength and power can be developed using a variety of techniques including swimming, plyometrics and resistance programs to supplement training * Plyometrics refers to a special range of exercises in which a muscle is lengthened using an eccentric contraction, followed by a rapid concentric contraction Training thresholds For improvement to occur we must work at a level of intensity that causes adaptations to take place * The magnitude of improvement is approximately proportional to the threshold level at which we work * The aerobic threshold refers to a level of exercise intensity that is sufficient to cause a training effect, is approximately 65 – 70% of MHR * The aerobic training zone is the level of intensity lying between the aerobic and anaerobic thresholds * The anaerobic threshold or lactate inflection point is characterised by lactic acid accumulation and fatigue * The principle can be applied to resistance training, with high reps being used to develop muscular endurance and high resistance and low reps being used to develop strength Warm-up and cool-down * The warm up reduces the risk of injury, increases jo int mobility and muscle length, increases body temperature, mentally prepares the athlete for training, stimulates the cardiorespiratory system * The warm up should last for a minimum of 10 minutes, lasting up to 40 minutes where explosive movements such as sprinting are required * The warm up should include general aerobic activity e. g. ogging, specific flexibility exercises, callisthenics which are repetitive movements performed on the spot such as push ups and star jumps and also skill rehearsal * The cool down minimises muscle stiffness and soreness, decrease body temperature slowly and disperses and metabolises lactic acid concentration * The cool down should include aerobic work of a decreasing intensity and stretching of muscle groups used Physiological adaptations in response to training * resting heart rate * stroke volume and cardiac output * oxygen uptake and lung capacity * haemoglobin level * muscle hypertrophy * effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres Physiological a daptations in response to training In response to training, the body makes adaptations or adjustments to the level of stress imposed on it * Although progressive improvements will be seen throughout a training program, it usually takes about 12 weeks to realise the entire benefits * Training will cause adaptations to a number of capacities, including resting heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output, oxygen uptake and lung capacity, haemoglobin levels, muscle hypertrophy and fast and slow twitch muscle fibres Resting heart rate * Is the number of heart beats per minute while the body is at rest * The average untrained male has a resting heart rate of 70 to 75 BPM * Training can lower this to 30 – 40 BPM * Training can reduce RHR by about one BPM each week for the first few months of training * Low resting heart rates reflects larger cardiac hypertrophy which allows for a greater stroke volume Stroke volume * Stroke volume is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricl e of he heart during a contraction, measured in mL / beat * Stroke volume is notably higher at maximal exercise following an endurance training program * This occurs because training causes the left ventricle to fill more completely during the diastole phase than it does in an untrained heart * There is also more blood in circulation following training due to an increase in blood plasma volume, meaning that more blood is able to enter the ventricle * Blood volume can increase by half a litre after only 8 days of endurance training * The increased oxygen available to the working muscles results in improved performance Cardiac output * Cardiac Output (Q) is the volume of blood ejected by the heart per minute, determined by multiplying heart rate by stroke volume * Untrained individuals may have a Q of 15 – 20 litres per minute, whereas trained athletes Q can range from 20 – 40 litres per minute due to a large increase in stroke volume * Q is generally regarded as maximum output when given Oxygen uptake Oxygen uptake is the ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being delivered * The most significant improvements in response to aerobic training are in oxygen uptake * As we begin to exercise the mitochondria in the cells use more oxygen in the provision of energy * Maximal oxygen uptake, or VO2 max, is regarded as the best indicator of cardiorespiratory endurance because it indicates the maximal amount of oxygen that muscles can absorb and use at that level of work * A high VO2 max indicates a superior oxygen delivery system * Measurements are expressed in millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of bodyweight per minute (mL/kg/min) * Average VO2 max levels are about 35 mL/kg/min and can be increased up to very high levels of even 80 or 90 mL/kg/min * A 15-20% increase in oxygen uptake is typical for the average inactive person who applies the FITT principle for a six-month period * Increases in oxygen uptake and VO2 max come from an increase in mitochondria numbers and their size as well as a possible increase due to increase in blood volume Lung capacity * Lung capacity is the amount of air that the lungs can hold * Total lung capacity is about 6000mL is males and slightly less in females * Lung capacity changes little with training, however it does cause some increase at maximal levels of exercise due to lower levels of residual volume Haemoglobin level Haemoglobin is the substance in blood that binds to oxygen and transports it around the body, it is contained in the red blood cells of the body * Each red blood cell contains about 250 million haemoglobin molecules * The average individual has about 14 grams of haemoglobin per 100 mL of blood * Most oxygen in the blood is transported by the haemoglobin in the red blood cells * They absorb oxygen at the lungs very quickly and carry this to the working muscles + organs * Haemoglobin levels increase roughly 20% as a result of training predominantly due to an increase in blo od volume as this increases oxygen-carrying capacity * Haemoglobin levels are also increased through altitude training as well as consuming a high iron diet Muscle hypertrophy Muscle hypertrophy is an increase in the size of a muscle or the cross-sectional area of the muscle as well as an increase in the size of muscle cells * Hypertrophy is induced by training programs that stimulate activity in muscle fibres causing them to grow * Without stimulation, muscle fibres can reduce in size, known as muscular atrophy which is a wasting away or decrease in size * The growth in the size of the muscle is a direct result from an increase in actin and myosin filament which produce muscle action, myofibrils which are the contractile elements of skeletal muscle and connective tissue which surrounds and supports the muscle * Muscle hypertrophy can occur in 4 – 6 weeks * Training cannot change the type of muscle fibre, only the cross sectional area * Hypertrophy is more easily achieved in males due to a higher concentration of testosterone Effect on fast and slow twitch muscle fibres * The two types of muscle fibres are slow-twitch or type 1 muscle fibres (red fibres) which contract slowly and for long periods of time, and fast witch or type 2 muscle fibres (white fibres) which reach peak tension quickly and are used for explosive movements * Most individuals have approximately even numbers of red and white fibres, while some individuals genetically have higher proportions of one type or the other * The bulk of the work is performed by muscles most suited to the specific type of activity * Aerobic training causes hypertrophy of ST muscle fibres, an increase in the number of capillaries surrounding muscle fibres which improves gaseous exchange, increases number and size of mitochondria which produce ATP, increases Myoglobin content which transports oxygen from the cell membrane to the mitochondria and level of oxidative enzymes increases * There are two types of fast twitch fibres, FTa which can use both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism and FTb which uses only anaerobic metabolism * Training intensity can alter the relative proportions of subtypes in FT muscle fibres * Anaerobic training causes an increase in the efficiency and supply of ATP / PC, an increase in glycolytic enzymes, hypertrophy of FT muscle fibres and an increase in lactic acid tolerance Chapter 6: Psychology and performance * Research continues to suggest that there is significant potential to improve performance through mental training Motivation * positive and negative * intrinsic and extrinsic Motivation Motivation is an internal state that activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal * Motivation is a force that can be manipulated to help an athlete achieve their full potential * Increasing the level of motivation in athletes can be achieved through recognising individual effort, supporting belief in one’s ability, instilling a good wo rk ethic and providing positive reinforcement and encouragement * The level of motivation we are able to achieve is affected by self-determination, parental pressure, response to support of others, money and the challenge Positive motivation * Positive motivation occurs when an individual’s performance is driven by revious reinforcing behaviours * The athlete is conditioned to perform in expectation of the reward * Positive motivation relies on continual self-reinforcement and / or reinforcement by others such as a coach, family, friends or spectators * Positive motivation is more effective than negative motivation and also more sustainable Negative motivation * Negative motivation is characterised by an improvement in performance out of fear of the consequences of not performing to expectations * Negative motivation can cause a player to not take risks, be indecisive and lack creativity * While negative motivation can work on an irregular basis, in the long term it can destr oy confidence, initiative and belief in oneself Intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation is a self-propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve because they have an interest in a task or activity and they enjoy learning and performing the movements * Intrinsic motivation is the preferred type of motivation because personal reward and self-satisfaction are much stronger driving forces than anything imposed from outside * Results in a very high level of concentration where the individual is completely absorbed in the task Extrinsic motivation * Extrinsic or external motivation is motivation that comes from sources outside a person, such as a coach or parent * Extrinsic motivation focuses on the product or what can be gained * Is seen in forms such as praise, material rewards and financial remuneration * Intrinsic motivation is more sustainable Anxiety and arousal * trait and state anxiety * sources of stress * optimum arousal Anxiety and Arousal * Anxiety is predominantly a p sychological process characterised by fear or apprehension in anticipation of confronting a situation perceived to be potentially threatening * Any sporting contest can give rise to anxiety Anxiety can also be entrenched in expectations, especially if one feels that they cannot be fulfilled * Arousal is a physiological process characterised by increased heart rate, tightness of muscles, increased blood supply and higher respiration rate Trait anxiety * Trait anxiety refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of each individual * It varies according to how individuals have conditioned themselves to respond to and manage the stress State anxiety * State anxiety is characterised by a state of heightened emotions that develop in response to specific fear or danger * A certain level of anxiety might be considered beneficial in sports where aggression is a natural outlet e. g. ugby * However it can hinder performance in fine motor skilled sports e. g. archery Sources of st ress * Stress is the non-specific response of the body to a demand placed on it * It can be felt by participants in all sports * We feel stress building within us, produced by adrenaline which readies the body for action * Stress is characterised by increased blood supply, more oxygen to the lungs, increased glucose production, increased sweat production and tightened muscles * Factors that produce stress are called stressors and can develop from, in sporting situations, personal pressure, competition pressure and social pressure Optimum arousal Arousal is a physiological response and can be experienced prior to and during a performance * While anxiety is primarily a psychological state, arousal is essentially a physiological process * Arousal level can either facilitate or hinder the execution of specific skills * The individual performs a skill most successfully when the level of arousal is optimal for that particular task and that individual * Low arousal is optimal for tasks inv olving few muscle groups e. g. darts, as opposed to high arousal which is optimal for activities involving large body movements e. g. running Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety * concentration/attention skills (focusing) * mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery * relaxation techniques * goal-settingPsychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety * Uncontrolled anxiety can potentially have a negative impact on performance, but a complete lack of anxiety can undermine effort and achievement * Athletes are able to use strategies including concentration / attention skills, mental rehearsal / visualisation / imagery, relaxation techniques and goal-setting to ensure their mental and physical energy is channelled in the right direction Concentration / attention skills (focusing) * Concentration is the ability to link movement and awareness to the extent that the individual can focus on doing, as opposed to thinking about doing * When an indi vidual focuses on the task or activity, their thoughts relate to execution * Concentration can be improved through training that emphasises the process rather than the outcome * Through developing skills that block out distractions, using routines, avoiding negative thoughts and utilising self-talk an athlete is able to gain greater concentration Mental rehearsal / visualisation / imagery Mental rehearsal is the commonly used technique of picturing the performance or skill before executing it * It has been shown to enhance not only competition performance, but also the acquisition and building of motor skills * Mental rehearsal requires vivid, realistic pictures at performance speed in the mind and a sense of experiencing the movement * Mental rehearsal can improve performance as it focuses the mind on the correct execution of the skill, provides a clear idea of what has to be done and heightens concentration Relaxation techniques * Relaxation techniques are a series of techniques t hat seek to control the body’s response to stress * Relaxation techniques may assist the athlete in control of arousal * Techniques commonly used by athletes include progressive muscular relaxation, mental relaxation, self-hypnosis, meditation and centred breathing Goal-setting Goals are targets that we direct our efforts towards and can relate to either performance or behaviour * They provide athletes with a reason to persevere with training over extended periods * The types of goals include short-term goals which can be achieved in a limited period of time, long-term goals which can be achieved only over a long period of time, behavioural goals which relate to improved behavioural expectations and performance goals which pertain to the athlete’s desired level of success Chapter 7: Nutrition, recovery strategies and performance Nutritional considerations * pre-performance, including carbohydrate loading * during performance * post-performance Nutritional consideration s Programs designed to improve performance must be supported by solid nutritional practices * The two most important nutritional considerations are the roles of carbohydrates and hydration * The type of food consumed prior to competition directly affects the quantity of energy available * Hydration involves supplying sufficient water to the body’s cells * Fluid is important because it is the body’s medium for cooling heated muscles and assists in temperature regulation by transporting heat to the outside of the body * A deficiency in fuel or fluid supply contributes to a substandard performance and can place the health of the athlete at risk Pre-performance (carbohydrate loading) * Food consumed prior to activity is useful only if digested and its energy and nutrients are made available to where they are required in the body * Foods high in fat, protein and fibre such as meats require longer periods to digest * Athletes are advised to eat mostly complex carbs e. g. pas ta, cereal, fruits and bread * Food ingested before a performance has the potential to cause discomfort * The appropriate quantity of food elates to the type of competition * A normal meal 3 – 4 hours before competition is usually appropriate, as the time period prior to competition becomes shorter, food intake should be in the form of snacks and liquid preparations * People competing in competition or events should drink adequate fluid in the preceding days, especially in the hours prior * Carbohydrate loading is a technique used to maximise the body’s storage of glycogen in preparation for a high-intensity endurance activity of more than 90 minutes – can improve performance by about 2% – 3% and delay fatigue * Muscle saturation of glycogen is best achieved through a balanced diet high in carbohydrates especially complex carbs and tapering of training for 2 to 4 days before competition * About 6 – 8 cups of water is needed per day, which is about 1. 5 – 2L of water, this amount is needed even before you take into account other factors such as heavy exercise, a dry or hot environment or being overweight. During performance Endurance events, particularly in hot and possibly humid conditions, can have a significant impact on the body’s fuel and fluid supplies * The need for carbohydrate and electrolyte replacement depends on a number of factors including intensity, duration, humidity, clothing type and individual sweat rates * Electrolytes are salts and minerals, such as sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium, that are important for many body functions such as chemical breakdown and nerve conduction, electrolytes are lost through perspiration during exercise * It is suggested that 200 – 300 mL of fluid be taken in every 15-20 minutes during exercise * It is especially important to be well hydrated when you are physically active as a loss of one or more per cent of your body weight due to sweating can lead to muscle cramps, dizziness and fatigue * Hydration is essential for heat dispersion, temperature regulation, chemical reactions producing energy, waste disposal through sweating and to allow blood to flow to major organs which is essential in sports performance * When you have lost an excessive amount of bodily fluid and are dehydrated you may experience thirst, discomfort, headaches, cramps, decreased blood pressure, dizziness, fainting, constipation and fatigue * When you are dehydrated, your body still tries to maintain its cardiac output; the amount of blood that is pumped around the body by the heart, by compensating for the loss of fluid by increasing the heart rate and constricting the blood vessels to try to maintain blood pressure and blood flow to organs * Dehydration is an excessive loss of water Post-performance A post-performance nutritional plan aims to return the body to its pre-event state as quickly as possible * Proactive recovery means that refuelling and rehydr ation begins immediately and continues for 8-12 hours following the performance * Depleted muscle and liver glycogen stores need to be replaced immediately through an intake of food and drink high in carbohydrates with a high glycaemic index * The glycaemic index is a ranking system for carbohydrates based on how they affect blood sugar level * Rehydration needs to take place to replace fluids and electrolytes lost during the event * Active rest is encouraged as it enhances the manufacture of red blood cells, new proteins and specific cellular components damaged by stress-related movements Supplementation * vitamins/minerals * protein * caffeine * creatine products Supplementation Dietary supplementation is found in many forms, including vitamins and minerals, protein, caffeine and creatine products * Supplements may be of little value if the diet is already well balanced in terms of nutritional requirements Vitamins * Vitamins are essential to maintaining bodily functions * Vitamin s are required in only very small quantities in the body * A balanced diet is important because food is the main source of vitamins * The body is unable to manufacture vitamins * Vitamin supplementation should not be a response to a desire for improved performance, but rather arise out of special needs e. g. ill health * The intake of excessive quantities of vitamins A and D may contribute to muscle and joint pain and headaches due to the body’s ability to store them Minerals Minerals are essential for the body to function properly, but do not provide energy * They are found in the body and are necessary for it to function adequately * Iron and calcium are the two minerals that are most commonly deficient in athletes * Athletes should look to dietary sources rather than supplementation to gain adequate minerals Protein * Protein’s primary importance to the body is its structural role in holding the cells together and in the growth, repair and maintenance of body tissue * High levels of protein are needed by strength athletes, endurance athletes in heavy training and adolescents undergoing a growth spurt * However changes in the dietary balance are the preferred method of supplementation Caffeine Caffeine does appear to improve cognitive processes, such as alertness * Caffeine does not appear to enhance performance in short-term high intensity activities such as sprinting * Diuretic properties of caffeine suggest that it should be avoided as it may contribute to dehydration * A diuretic is a drug that increases the amount of fluid (water and urine) passing from the body * The only evidence of caffeine enhancing performance is that it may assist specific metabolic processes, enhancing endurance performance * An ergogenic aid is a substance or practice that improves or is believed to improve physical performance Creatine products The body has two sources of creatine, production by body cells and food intake, particularly from meat * It is important in making energy available to sustain short duration explosive activity such as weight-lifting and sprinting * Creatine cannot be stored in the body * Muscle hypertrophy is more easily achieved when training is assisted by creatine supplementation, possibly related to the increase in weight it causes * There is little, if any benefit of supplementation to enhancing performance Recovery strategies * physiological strategies, e. g. cool down, hydration * neural strategies, e. g. hydrotherapy, massage * tissue damage strategies, e. g. cryotherapy * psychological strategies, e. g. relaxation Recovery strategies Recovery strategies aim to ensure that the athlete is able to resume normal training and competition within the time span of the training program * Active rest is still regarded as the most beneficial form of recovery * Rest allows both physiological and psychological revitalisation to take its course * During rest, muscles repair and rebuild while energy and fluid levels are res tored to pre-event levels * Short-term recovery requires activities such as cool-down following training, together with low intensity exercise to promote soft tissue repair and disperse lactic acid * Recovery strategies can be categorised as physiological, neural, tissue damage or psychological Physiological strategies (cool down, nutritional plan – hydration + fuel recovery) * Physiological strategies need to focus on the removal of metabolic by-products and a nutritional plan to replace lost fluids and energy-rich nutrients * An effective cool-down is the recommended manner for removal of metabolic by-products * The purpose of a cool-down following exercise is to gradually reduce heart rate and metabolism to the pre-exercise state while also assisting in the removal of waste products including lactic acid, which contributes to muscle stiffness and soreness * It is also designed to restore a number of other elevated body functions, such as ventilation rate, blood distributio n and adrenaline levels back to normal * The cool-down should consist of 5-10 minutes of walking / jogging / slow swimming, with the aim of returning the body to pre-exercise temperature * Static stretching is also important * Vigorous or sustained exercise that is not concluded with a cool-down may result in blood pooling, causing dizziness * A nutritional plan encompassing fluid recovery and fuel recovery is paramount * Drinking 600mL of water for every half kilogram of weight lost during exercise is ecommended * During the first 30 minutes to two hours following exercise the muscles are most receptive to glycogen enrichment and this is the best time for fuel recovery * A high carbohydrate diet is recommended during exercise recovery Neural strategies (hydrotherapy, massage) * Neural strategies such as hydrotherapy and massage aim to relax muscles that have been fatigued or damaged as a result of high intensity exercise * Strenuous exercise impacts on the central nervous system an d this may contribute to fatigue * Hydrotherapy involves the use of water to relax, soothe pain and assist metabolic recovery * Water provides support for movements, and eliminates jarring and straining movements that are associated with land drills * Typical hydrotherapy methods involve use of steam rooms, spas, underwater massage and heated swimming pools * Sports massage focuses on body and mental relaxation It is important as exercise induced tension can cause stress on joints, ligaments, tendons and muscles * Post-event massage claims to help relieve swelling, reduce muscle tension, assist in eliminating toxic by-products, promote flexibility and prepare the athlete for the next training session Tissue damage strategies (cryotherapy) * Cryotherapy involves the use of cooling to treat injury or quicken recovery from performances, particularly those that involve collisions and / or sustained intensity * Ice is the most used form of cryotherapy because of its ability to slow down the tissue inflammatory process, preventing the build-up of waste Psychological strategies (relaxation) Use of psychological strategies represents an important phase in emotional and possibly spiritual recovery * Mind relaxing activities such as reading, listening to music, and watching movies or television are helpful and used by most athletes * The benefits of other more specialised psychological techniques such as progressive muscular relaxation, flotation, meditation, visualisation, centred breathing and positive self-talk are realised if practised frequently Chapter 8: Skill and performance * Skill is the ability to consistently perform movements with control and precision * The acquisition of skill is a gradual development process that requires that our cognitive (thinking) processes work with our physical abilities to learn how to perform movements that previously were unfamiliar to us * Acquisition is gaining possession of something Stages of skill acquisition * cognitive * associative * autonomous Stages of skill acquisition The stages of skill acquisition can be categorised into the cognitive or planning stage, the associative or practice stage and the autonomous or automatic stage Cognitive stage * Cognitive refers to mental processing of information, thinking and understanding * The fundamental requirement here is that the athlete gains an understanding of the task required * The learner may experience error, awkwardness and some disorientation * Positive learning should be reinforced and encouraged Associative stage * Associative means connecting or linking ideas * The associative stage is identified by a specific emphasis on practice * Errors still occur, but are smaller and less frequent than in the cognitive stage * A sense of fluency or smoothness develops as the learner’s kinaesthesis improves Autonomous stage Autonomous means being in full control of actions so they become automatic * Temporal patterning is developed, where their move ment has a characteristic fluency as the sub-routines sequence and blend in aesthetically pleasing motions Characteristics of the learner, e. g. personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience, ability Characteristics of the learner * The speed with which learners are able to acquire certain motor skills depends on a number of factors, of which most are inherent features * Some characteristics of learners that affect the rate of learning are personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience and ability Personality Personality refers to an individual’s characteristic way of behaving * From a motor learning point of view, certain aspects of personality tend to be more favourable with certain learning environments * Attributes affecting learning include cooperativeness, willingness to listen, determination, enthusiasm, dedication, level of motivation, aggressiveness and willingness to take risks and learn * Traits are characteristics or observable features of a person Here dity * Heredity refers to genetic characteristics inherited from our parents * Important hereditary characteristics are the relative percentage of fast-twitch to slow-twitch muscle fibres, somatotype, gender, height and conceptual ability * Somatotype is a person’s body type or shape, with ectomorphic referring to linearity, mesmorphic referring to muscularity and endomorphic referring to roundness Confidence * Self-confidence is a firm belief in one’s own ability * Confidence develops from experiencing success in learning situations * Confidence leads to self-belief Prior experience It is often easier to learn a new skill if similar movements have already been successfully acquired * Transfer of learning is an important reality in the acquisition of new skills * Lateral transfer is the transfer from one task to another similar task e. g. forehand in ping pong and tennis * Vertical transfer is mastering a lower order task as a prerequisite for something much more diffi cult e. g. kicking using a kickboard and freestyle Ability * Ability is the ease with which an individual is able to perform a movement or routine * Ability incorporates a range of factors, such as sense acuity, perception, reaction time and intelligence * Acuity is sharpness The learning environment nature of the skill (open, closed, gross, fine, discrete, serial, continuous, self-paced, externally paced) * the performance elements (decision-making, strategic and tactical development) * practice method (massed, distributed, whole, part) * feedback (internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results, knowledge of performance) The learning environment * The learning environment refers to everything outside the learner and embraces the skill itself, the situation in which it is practised, information from coaches and even the influence of surrounding weather conditions The nature of skill * Skills are commonly classified as open or closed, gross motor or fine motor, discret e, serial or continuous, and self-paced or externally paced Open and closed skills Open skills occur in an environment that is unpredictable and frequently changing * Closed skills occur in an environment that is stable and predictable * The closed environment is much more conducive to skill learning because the learner is not distracted by other factors * Skills can be placed along a continuum from closed to open Gross motor and fine motor skills * Gross motor skills require the use of large muscle groups for execution * Fine motor skills require the use of only small muscle groups to perform the movement Discrete, serial and continuous skills * Skills can be classified as discrete, serial or continuous according to where they begin and end * Discrete skills have a distinct beginning and end that can be identified e. g. a forward role * Serial skills involve a equence of smaller movements that are assembled to make a total skill e. g. a layup in basketball * Continuous skills have no distinct beginning or end e. g. swimming Self-paced and externally paced skills * Self-paced skills are movements for which the performer determines the timing and speed of execution e. g. bowling in cricket * Externally paced skills are movements for which an external source controls the timing e. g. batting in cricket Performance elements * The performance elements are decision making, strategic development and tactical development * The game-centred approach aims to focus on the whole game and all components Decision making Productive decision making is best achieved through observation, questioning, whole, part, whole approach, variation and creativity Strategic and tactic development * Strategic understanding refers to the way we play, where we should be at a particular time and what to do * Tactical awareness is about utilising ways of gaining an advantage over an opponent * Strategic and tactical development is built on the principles of technical efficiency, understanding and skilful execution Practice methods * The learning environment is further affected by the practice methods or training systems and routines designed to teach particular skills Massed and distributed practice Distributed practice (or spaced practice) involves a broken practice session, with the intervals of rest or alternative activities being longer than the practice intervals * Distributed practice works best when the performer lacks interest, the task is difficult, motivation is low or the task causes fatigue * Massed practice involves a continuous practice session, with the rest intervals being shorter than the practice intervals * Massed practice works best when performers are highly motivated and fresh Whole and part practice * The whole practice method is applied when a skill is practised in its entirety * The part practice method is applied when a skill is broken into smaller components and each discrete sub-skill is practised separately * Whole-part-whole practice is a c ombination of both methods Feedback Feedback is the information provided to the learner about the nature or result of their performance * The many types of feedback include internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results and knowledge of performance Internal (or intrinsic) and external (or extrinsic) feedback * Internal feedback occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill and is received through the body’s proprioceptive mechanisms or senses * External feedback is all feedback other than that which occurs as a normal consequence of performing a skill * Augmented feedback, a type of external feedback, is supplementary information that is not given at the time that the skill is performed e. g. video analysis Concurrent (or continuous) and delayed feedback * Concurrent feedback is received during the performance of a skill and it is relayed throughout the body by the proprioceptive mechanism * Delayed feedback is received after the skill has been executed e. g. waiting for the result of a basketball shot Knowledge of results and knowledge of performance Knowledge of results is information about the outcome of a movement, it is always external and may come from a coach or judges for example * Knowledge of performance is information about the pattern of the movement during execution, it gives feedback on the quality of the execution of the skill Assessment of skill and performance * characteristics of skilled performers, e. g. kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency, technique * objective and subjective performance measures * validity and reliability of tests * personal versus prescribed judging criteria Assessment of skill and performance Characteristics of skilled performers * The movements of the skilled performer have certain observable qualities including kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency and technique Kinaesthetic sense * Kinaesthesis (or kinaesthetic sense) refers to the system of sensitivity that exists in the muscles and their attachments Anticipation Skilled performers are better able to predict what may happen in specific situations Consistency * The skilled performer is able to perform the desired movement repeatedly Technique * Technique is a procedure or practical method applied to a particular task Objective and subjective performance methods * Measurement is the process of using numeric information to assess a particular physical ability * Subjective observation refers to a judgement of performance quality based on feelings, impressions or opinions rather than a measurement system * Objectivity is the extent to which a measure or test is independent of the observer Validity and reliability of tests Validity is the honesty of a test – that is, the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure * The validity of a test is enhanced by accuracy in prediction and ensuring test items contain the component being validated * Reliability refers to the degree of consiste ncy of a test – that is, the ability of the test and tester to produce the same results on successive occasions Personal versus prescribed judging criteria * Criteria refer to the standards / qualities used for judging the value of a performance * Personal criteria are the preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual brings to judge a performance * Prescribed criteria are established by a sports organisation or body and form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport or activity * Appraisal is a judgement about the quality of something or somebody * The use of prescribed criteria seeks to absorb elements of subjectivity into a more objective framework